Tribes, Nomads And Settled Communities

Tribes, Nomads And Settled Communities

Introduction- In large parts of subcontinent, socity was already divided according to the rules of varna. These rules as prescribed by Brahamanas, were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms. Difference between high and low, difference  between rich and poor increased.

Tribal Societies in Different Parts

-          ➤Many societies in the subcontinent did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by Brahamanas. Nor were they divided into numerous unequal classes

-           ➤ These societies are often called as tribes.

-          ➤Members were united by kinship bonds.

-          ➤Main occuption was agriculture.

-           ➤Usually lived in forest, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.

-          ➤In Punjab, the Khokkar tribe was very influential during 13^th- 14^th century.

-          ➤Then Gakkar was made noble (mansabdar) by empiror Akbar.

-          ➤In Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated before they were  subduced by Mughals.

-          ➤The Balochis were another arge and powerful tribe in the north-west.They were divided into smaller clans under different chief.

-        ➤ In western Himalaya lived the Shepherd tribe of Gaddis.

-          ➤The north-eastern part was dominated by the Nagas, Ahoms and many others.

-         ➤ In Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms emerged in 20^th century which was attacked and defeated by Raja Man singh in 1591.

-          ➤The Mundas and Santals were other tribes that lived in Odissa and Bengal.

-           Maharashtra  and Karnatka were homes of Kolis, Berads and many others.

-          ➤Kolis also lived in Gujarat.

-          ➤  In South there were a large population of Koragas, Vetars, Meravars and many others.

-          ➤ A large tribe of Bhills was spread across western and central  India. In late 16^th century, many of them had become settled agriculturists and even zamindars also.

-          ➤The Gonds were found in Chhatishgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

                                       

Living Styles og Tribes

Deliberation On Jatis

A 12th century inscription from Uyyakondan Udaiyar, in Tiruchirapalli taluka, described the deliberation in a sabha of Brahamans .         They deliberated on the status of a group known as rathakaras (literally, chariot makers) They laid down their occupation, which were to include architecture, building coaches and chariots, erecting gateways for temples with images in them, preparing wooden equipments, building mandapas, making jewelleries for kings.

Nomadic pastoralists moved over long distances with their animals. They lived on milk and other pastorals products . They also exchanged wool, ghee with the settled agriculturists for grain, cloths, utensils and other products. Banjaras were most important traders nomads. Their caravan was called as Tanda. Sultan Alauddin Khalji used banjaras to transport grains to the city markets.

Emerging of New Castes And Hierarchies

As the societies grew new castes in the the tribes emrged .Smaller castes, or jatis, emerged within varans. For example, new castes appeared amongst the Brahamans. Specialised artisans  - smiths, carpentes and masons – were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahamans.

Banjara

• The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads. Their caravan was called tanda.
• Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
• Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs about Banjaras.

The Gonds

-          ➤The Gonds lived on a vast forest region called as Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”.

-         ➤  They practised shifting cultivation. They were divided in clans. Each clans have its own Raja or Rai.

-          ➤The Gond Kingdom of Garha Katanga had 70,000 villages.

-        ➤ The kingdom was divided into garh. Each garh was controlled by a particular Gond clans . This was further divided into 84 villages called as chaurasi. Chaurasi was further divided into barhots made up of 12villages.

-        ➤ Later the Gond came to know as rajputs. The Gond Raja Aman Das married  with princess Padmavati, daughter of Salbahan , tha chandel Rajput raja.

The Ahoms

-           ➤ The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present – day Myanmar in 13^th century.

-          ➤They emerged as Bhuiyans (landlords) .

-          ➤In 16^th century, they  annexed the kingdom of the Chhutiyas (1523) and Koch – Hajo (1581).

-          ➤They faced many invasion from the south-west . In 1662, the Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahoms Kingdom.

-        ➤ The Ahoms were forced for labour , those who were forced for labour are called as paiks.

-       ➤  By the first half of 17^th century Ahoms clans were broken up and administration became centralised.

-        ➤ Ahom society was divided into clans or khel. A khel controlled many villages. They worshiped their own tribal Gods.

Mongols

-          ➤Mongols were the best known pastoral and hunter- gatherer tribe.

-          ➤They are found in grassland (steppes) of Central Asia and the forested areas of North.

-         ➤ In 1206 Genghis Khan had united the Mongols and Turkish tribes into a powerful military forces.

-         ➤At different point of time, it included parts of Russia, Eastern Europe and also China and West Asia.

-        ➤ They have well organised military and administrative systems.

-         ➤They were based on different ethnic and religious groups.

The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate

Introduction:- Delhi became the capital of kingdom under Tomara Rajput – defeated in 20th century by Chauhans of Ajmer. Due to this Delhi became an important commercial centre. The transformation of Delhi into a capital started with the foundation of Delhi sultanate in the beginning of 13th Century . Jan Merchants ade many temples in Delhi

Rulers Of Delhi: 
Rajput Dynasty:-
1. Tomaras Early 12th cen. – 1165
2. Ananga Pala 1130 – 1145
3. Chauhans 1165 – 1192
4. Prithvi Raj Chauhan 1175 – 1192

Early Turkish Ruler (1206-1210)
1. Qutbuddin Aybak 1206-1210
2. Shamsuddin 1210-1236
3. Raziyya 1236-1240
4. Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1287

Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
1. Jalaluddin Khalji 1290-1296
2. Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316

Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1414)
1. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320-1324
2. Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351
3. Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351-1388

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451) 
1. Khizr Khan 1414-1421

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) 1. Bahlul Lodi 1451-1489
Delhi Sultans:
· ‘Histories’ that are known as tarikh were written in Persian language.
· The authors of tawarikh were learned men-secretaries, administrators, poets and courtier.
· They often wrote histories of Sultans in hope of good rewards.
· They advise rulers to preserve an ideal social order based on birthright and gender distinction.

# In 1236 Sultan Iltutmis’s daughter Raziyya became Sultan but Minhaj –i Siraj was not comfortable
    to make a women Sultan. She was removed from throne in 1240.

$ Some important Mosque of Delhi –


1. Quwwat al Islam – This mosque and minerate built during the last decade of 12th century.
This was the first mosque built by Delhi Sultans. The mosque enlarged by Iltutmish and Alauddin    Khalji. The minar was built by Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish.
2. Begampuri Mosque – Built in reign of Muhamad Tughluq, the main mosque of Jahanpanah, the “Sanctuary of the World”
3. Moth Ki Masjid – Built in the reign of Sikandar Lodi by his minister.
4. Mosque of Jamali- kamali built in late 1520’s.

Administration And Consolidation Under the Khaljis And Tughluqs:-

Consolidation of Delhi Sultanate was very vast. Sultanate appoints their purchased slaves called bandagan instead of governors. They appoint their sons as governors and generals. For example – Official of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar- a wine distiller , Firuz – a barber , Manka Tabbakh- a cook, two gardener – Ladha and Pira.

➤ The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commander as governor of territories .
 ➤These lands were known as ekta.
➤Duty of Muqti was to lead military compaigns and maintain law and order in their ektas.

Land Revenue System In British India

Land Revenue System In British India

Istamarari(Sthayi) Bandhobast/ Permanent Settlement
 → This system was introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Odissa, some districts of Banaras and
       Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornvallis in 1793.
 → This was planned by John shore.
 → According to this system zamindars will be the owners of the land. They could keep 1/11th of
      the revenue collected by them while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the
      revenue collected.
 → Assured of their ownership many zamindars tyed n towns and exloited their tenants.

Ryotwari System
 → This system was introduced in Bombay and Madras by Munro and Charles Reed .
 → In this syste a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivators ).
→ There was a fixed agreement for a period not more than 30 years, on the basis of the soil and
     the crop. Based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
 →The position of the farmer was secure but this system insisted them into the cultches
     of money lenders
 → Besides the government became the zamindars and retained the right to inhence the revenue
       at their will and the farmers left on the mercy of its officers.

Mahaiwari System
 → It was the modified form of zamindari settlement introduced in Ganges Valley ,NWFT, parts
      of Central India and Punjab.
→ Revenue system was made by the village or the estate with landlords. In western Uttar Pradesh ,
      a settlement was made with the village communities which maintained a form of
      common ownership known as Bhaichare, or with Mahals which were groups of villages.
→ There was periodic revision in the revenue.

Impects of Land Revenue System
→ The land settlement introduced market econoy and did away with customary rights. Cash
      payment of revenue increased money lending .
 → Created social differences . Only rich had access to the courts to defend their property.
 → Roecible growing of commercial crop led the farers to buy food grains at high prices and
      sell crops at low prices.
→ Due this stability of Indian villages was shaken and entire set of the society began to break up.

चोल साम्राज्य

चोल साम्राज्य :-
तमिल साहित्य में कंबन ने रामायण, पुगालिंदी ने नलबेंबा, ज्ञानगोंदुर ने कल्लादानर की रचना की। जयागोंदान कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के राजकवि थे। इनकी रचना कलिंगन्तुपणीं थी। सेक्कीललार कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के दरबार में रहता था। उसने पेरीयापुराणम की रचना की। वेंकट माधव ने परांतक प्रथम के संरक्षण में ऋग्र्थदीपिका की रचना की। चोल शासक वीर राजेन्द्र को भी महान् तमिल विद्वान् बताया गया है।

धर्म

इस काल में बौद्ध धर्म का ह्रास होने लगा। पाल शासक बौद्ध धर्म के थे और उनके काल में बंगाल में इस धर्म का प्रभाव बना रहा। पाल राजाओं के पतन के बाद बौद्ध धर्म का भी पतन हो गया और बौद्ध धर्म अपने देश से ही समाप्त हो गया।

जैन धर्म की स्थिति, बौद्ध धर्म की अपेक्षा अच्छी थी। यद्यपि उत्तर भारत में इसकी लोकप्रियता कम हो गई परन्तु पश्चिम और दक्षिण भारत में यह लोकप्रिय बना रहा और इसे राजाश्रय प्राप्त हुआ। चालुक्य शासकों ने जैन धर्म को प्रोत्साहन दिया और आबू पर्वत पर मंदिरों का निर्माण कराया। नवीं और दसवीं शताब्दी में दक्षिण भारत में जैन धर्म का बड़ा प्रचार हुआ। कर्नाटक के गांग शासकों ने जैन धर्म को प्रोत्साहन दिया। जैन धर्म की एक विशेषता यह रही है की समय के अनुसार वन अपने को ढालता रहा है और ब्राह्मण धर्म के काफी निकट आ गया। यही कारण है की बौद्ध धर्म अपने देश में भी मृत हो गया, जबकि जैन धेम आज भी जीवित-जागृत धर्म है।

इस काल में हिन्दू धर्म की उन्नति हुई। शिव और विष्णु प्रमुख देवता बन गए। शिव और विष्णु के अनेक मंदिरों का निर्माण कराया गया। इसी काल में शक्तिपूजा का प्रचलन भी बढ़ा। शक्ति की चंडी, महाकाली, दुर्गा आदि विभिन्न रूपों में उपासना की गयी और इन मंदिरों का निर्माण किया गया। त्रिदेव (ब्रह्मा, विष्णु, महेश) गणेश और सूर्य मंदिरों का भी निर्माण किया गया। विभिन्न देवी-देवताओं का प्रचलन होते हुए भी धार्मिक क्षेत्र में सहिष्णुता की भावना बनी रही। अलवार और नयनार संतों ने भक्ति आंदोलन प्रारम्भ किया। विष्णु उपासक अलवार एवं शिव उपासक नयनार कहलाते थे।

शंकराचार्य ने हिन्दू दर्शन की पुनर्व्याख्या की और अद्वैतवाद के सिद्धान्त का प्रतिपादन किया। उन्होंने बौद्ध और जैन धर्म को चुनौती दी और अनेक बार शास्त्रार्थ किये। शांकराचार्य के वेदान्त का दर्शन जनसाधारण की समझ में न आ सका। ग्यारहवीं शताब्दी में रामानुज ने अद्वैतवाद के स्थान पर द्वैतवाद के सिद्धांत का प्रचार किया और दक्षिण भारत में भक्ति-आन्दोलन का सूत्रपात हुआ। यह आन्दोलन आगे चलकर उत्तरी भारत में बड़ा लोकप्रिय हुआ। बारहवीं शताब्दी में एक और आन्दोलन आरम्भ हुआ जिसे लिंगायत कहते हैं। लिंगायत संप्रदाय की स्थापना बासव ने की। इस संप्रदाय का वर्णन बासव पुराण में किया गया। लिंगायत शिव के उपासक थे और मुक्ति प्राप्त करने के लिए भक्ति को आवश्यक मानते थे। इन्होंने जातिप्रथा की आलोचना की और उपवास तथा बलिप्रथा को निरर्थक बताया।

शैव धर्म- माना जाता है कि कुल 63 नैयनार सन्त हुए। प्रथम नैयनार सन्त अप्पर थे। इनके बाद नानसंबंदर आये। ये तंजौर जिले के सिजली नामक स्थान पर पैदा हुए थे। ये कौन्डिन्य गोत्रीय ब्राह्मण थे। ये राजराज एवं राजेन्द्र चोल के समकालीन थे। तिरूमूलर एक महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्त थे। उन्होंने तेवारम और तिरूव्राचलर की रचना थी। सुन्दर मूर्ति एक महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्त थे। इनको शिव के प्रति वैसी ही भक्ति थी जैसे किसी घनिष्ठ मित्र के प्रति होती है। इसलिए उन्हें तम्बिरानतोलन (ईश्वर मित्र) की उपाधि दी गई। नबिअंडारनबि भी एक महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्त थे उन्होंने तिरुमुराई का संकलन किया। तिरुमुराई को पंचम वेद भी कहा जाता है और नबिअंडारनबि को तमिल व्यास कहा जाता है। अधिकतर चोल शासक कट्टर शैव थे। आदित्यचोल ने कावेरी नदी के दोनों किनारे शैव मंदिर स्थापित करवाये थे। राजाराम प्रथम ने वृहदेश्वर मंदिर का निर्माण करवाया था और शिवपाद शेखर की उपाधि ली थी। राजाराज प्रथम एवं राजेन्द्र प्रथम के समय इशानशिव और सर्वशिव जैसे शैव मंत्री नियुक्त हुए।

वैष्णव धर्म- इस आन्दोलन के भावनात्मक पक्ष का प्रतिनिधित्व 12 अल्वार संतों ने किया। अल्वार का अर्थ होता है ईश्वर के गुणों में डूबाने वाला।

महत्त्वपूर्ण सन्त- प्रारम्भिक अल्वार संत पोयगई था। दूसरे तिरूमलिशई, तीसरे तिरूमंगई एवं चौथे पेरिपालवार हुए। केरल के शासक कुलशेखर भी अलवार थे। अलवारों में एक मात्र महिला अंदाल थी। आचायों ने अलवारों की व्यक्तिगत भक्ति को दार्शनिक आधार प्रदान किया। भक्ति का समन्वय कर्म एवं ज्ञान से हो गया।

सबसे पहला आचार्य नाथमुनी थे जिन्होंने न्याय तत्व की रचना की। परम्परा के अनुसार, वे श्रीरंग मंदिर में भगवान की मूर्ति में प्रवेश कर गए। यमुनाचार्य ने आगमों की महत्ता को प्रतिष्ठित किया और उन्हें वेदों का समकक्ष माना।

रामानुज- ये यमुनाचार्य के शिष्य थे। इनका जन्म कांची के पास पेरम्बदुर में हुआ। उन्होंने श्री भाष्य नामक ग्रन्थ की रचना की और विशिष्टताद्वैत का दर्शन दिया। रामानुज पूर्व मीमांसा एवं उत्तर मीमांसा में कोई अन्तर नहीं समझते थे। उनके विचार में उत्तर मीमांसा के अध्ययन से पहले पूर्व मीमांसा का अध्ययन आवश्यक है। वे सामान्य एवं विशेष भक्ति में अन्तर स्थापित करते हैं और ऐसा कहते हैं कि सामान्य भक्ति ईश्वर का निरन्तर ध्यान है एवं विशेष भक्ति ईश्वर के स्वरूप का ज्ञान है। माना जाता है कि चोल शासकों से उनका मतभेद हो गया (कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम एवं कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय), इन्हें कुलोत्तुंग प्रथम के विरोध का सामना करना पड़ा, उन्हें श्रीरंगम् छोड़ना पड़ा। माना जाता है जब कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय ने गोविन्दराज की मूर्ति को फिकवा दिया था तो रामानुज ने उसे तिरुपति के मंदिर में स्थापित किया। रामानुज ने भक्ति संप्रदाय एवं हिन्दू धर्म के बीच सेतु का कार्य किया। यद्यपि रामानुज उच्चवर्ग के लिए विशेषाधिकार चाहते थे किन्तु वे शूद्रों को मंदिर प्रवेश से वर्जित नहीं करते थे।

निम्बाकाचार्य- रामानुज के समकालीन थे, उनका जन्म बेलारी जिला के निम्बापुर गाँव में हुआ था। वे तेलुगु ब्राह्मण थे किन्तु उनका अधिकांश समय वृन्दावन में बीता।

माधवाचार्य- इनका जन्म दक्षिणी कन्नड़ जिले के उदिची तालुक में हुआ था। इन्हें वायु का अवतार माना गया है। तेरहवीं एवं चौदहवीं सदी में रामानुज के अनुयायियों में फूट पड़ गई। उत्तरी शाखा बडगलई एवं दक्षिणी शाखा तेंगलई कहलायी। वडगलई-तमिल भाषा का प्रयोग करते थे जबकि तेंगलई-संस्कृत भाषा का प्रयोग करते थे। वैष्णव एवं शैव मतों का व्यापक प्रचार हुआ। इसमें अलवारों एवं नयनारों की प्रबल भूमिका थी। अधिकतर चोल कट्टर शैव थे। चोल नरेश आदित्य प्रथम ने कावेरी के किनारे शिव मंदिर का निर्माण कराया। शैव संत नंबी अंदाल नंबी ने शैवमंत्रों को धार्मिक ग्रंथों में शामिल किया। ये राजराज प्रथम एवं राजेन्द्र के समकालीन थे। परांतक प्रथम ने दभ्रसभा का निर्माण किया। वैष्णव मत के प्रमुख आचार्य काफी समय तक श्रीरंग मंदिर में रहे, उन्होंने विशिष्टाद्वैत मत का प्रचार किया। कुलोत्तुंग द्वितीय चिदम्बरम मंदिर से गोविन्दराज विष्णु की मूर्ति को समुद्र में फिंकवा दिया। इसे रामानुज ने पुन: उठाकर इसे तिरुपति के विशाल वैष्णव मंदिर में स्थापित कराया। रामानुजाचार्य ने भक्तिसंप्रदाय एवं हिन्दू धर्म के मध्य सेतु का काम किया। 13वीं सदी में कन्नड़ में धर्मोपदेश देने वाले माधव ने भी धर्म के साथ भक्ति का संतुलन बैठने की कोशिश की। माधव के अनुसार, विष्णु अपने भक्तों पर अनुग्रह अपने पुत्र वायु देवता द्वारा करते हैं। रामानुजाचार्य उच्च वेर्न हेतु विशेष सुविधा स्वीकार करते हुए भी इस बात के विरुद्ध थे की शूद्रों को मंदिर में प्रवेश से वंचित किया जाए। धवलेश्वरम से चोलों के स्वर्ण सिक्के के ढेर मिलें हैं।

चोल कला की विशेषताएं मंडप, विमान, गोपुरम थी। चोल कला द्रविड़ शैली पर आधारित थी। चोल स्थापत्य की प्रशंसा करते हुए फर्ग्युसन ने कहा है की चोल्कलिन कारीगर राक्षस की तरह सोचते थे एवं जौहरी की तरह तराशते थे। प्रारंभिक मंदिरों में तिरुकट्टालाई का सुन्दरेश्वर मंदिर था। रतमलाई में विजयालय चोलेश्वर मंदिर भी स्थापत्य का सुन्दर उदाहरण है। राजराज प्रथम ने तंजौर में राजराजेश्वर मंदिर/वृहदेश्वर मंदिर का निर्माण करवाया। पर्सी ब्राउन ने इस वृहदेश्वर मंदिर के विमान को भारतीय वास्तुकला का निकष माना है जबकि गंगैकोंडचोलपुरम के वृहदेश्वर मंदिर का निर्माण राजेन्द्र प्रथम द्वारा कराया गया। पर्सी ब्राउन ने इस मंदिर को गीतों की तरह संवेदना उत्पन्न करने वाला महान् कलात्मक निर्माण कहा है। अन्य मंदिरों में तंजौर स्थित दारासुरम का ऐरावतेश्वर मंदिर है। चोलकाल में मूर्तिकला का भी विकास हुआ। तंजौर स्थित नटराज शिव की कांस्य मूर्ति इसका सर्वोत्कृष्ट उदाहरण है। पार्वती स्कंद में कार्तिकेय एवं गणेश आदि देवताओं की कांस्य मूर्तियाँ भी निर्मित की गई। भित्ति चित्रकला में वृहदेश्वर मंदिर के दीवारों पर अजंता की चित्रकला का प्रभाव दिखाई देता है।

इस प्रकार नवीं और बारहवीं शताब्दी के बीच का यह काल आर्थिक और सामाजिक दृष्टि से बड़ा महत्त्वपूर्ण है। इस समय देश में सामाजिक और धार्मिक क्षेत्र में महान् परिवर्तन हुए। अनेक मन्दिरों के निर्माण से कला को प्रोत्साहन मिला।

Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization:-Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia,  which spread across a vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 ie. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.

Main points of Indus Valley Civilization:-

• BC. 2700- BC.1900 ie for 800 years.
• On the valleys of river Indus.
• Also known as Harappan Civilization.
• Beginning of city life.
• Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomori district, Punjab, Pakistan.
• Mohanjodaro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
• City was divided into Citadel(west) and Lower Town(east).
• Red pottery painted with designs in black.
• Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
• Artificially produced – Faience.
• Specialists for handicrafts.
• Import of raw materials.
• Plough was used.
• Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
• Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

Harappa

• Seals out of stones
• Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi

Mohenjodaro

• Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
• Term means ” Mount of the dead”
• On the bank of river Indus
• Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion(Destruction was not gradual).

Chanhudaro

• Bank of Indus river. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
• Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
• Only cite without citadel.

Kalibangan

• At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
• Fire Altars
• Bones of camel
• Evidence of furrows
• Horse remains ( even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
• Known as third capital of Indus Empire.

Lothal

• At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
• Fire Altars
• Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
• Store house
• Dockyard and earliest port
• double burial
• Rice husk
• House had front entrance (exception).

Ropar

• Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
• Dog buried with humans

Banawali

• Haryana
• On banks of lost river Saraswathi
• Barley Cultivation.

Dholavira

• Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
• Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
• 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
• Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).

Religion of Indus Valley People

• Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
• Mother goddess
• Nature/ Animal worship
• Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
• Amulets
• Idol worship was practiced ( not a feature of Aryans)
• Did not construct temples.
• Similarity to Hindu religious practises. (Hinduism in its present form originated later)
• No Caste system.

Indus Valley Society and Culture

• Systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).
• Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
• Equal status to men and women
• Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
• Textiles – Spinning and weaving
• 3 types – burial, cremation and post cremation were there, though burial was common.
• Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture. Read more on races of India.

Reasons behind the fall of Indus Valley Civilization

Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might have been the cause of decline of Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with loss of power of rulers (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory). There might be resource shortage to sustain the population, and then people moved towards south India. Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states that inter-personal violence, infectious diseases and climate change had played a major role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ancient India

 Ancient History :-

1. Ancient India:-

                       Indian History is an important topic to the point of civil services  because many question may be asked  ias exam from cultures and civilizations existed in this sub-continent. History of India can be studied under political, cultural, religious or economic heads.

Indian History can be classified into three periods: – 1. Ancient India  2. Medieval India   3.  Modern India.

There were activities of proto-humans (Homo erectus) in the Indian subcontinent 20 lakh years (2 million years) ago, and of Homo sapiens since 70,000 BC. But they were gathers/hunters.

The first inhabitants of Indian subcontinent might have been tribals like Nagas (North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central India), Gonds (Central India), Todas (South India) etc. Most of them are speakers of the Austric, pre-Dravidian languages, such as Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans are believed to be immigrants who came later to the sub-continent.

Ancient India can be studied under other heads like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic period – based on the type of stone/ metal tools people used.

Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)

• Fire
• Tools made up of lime stone
• Ostrich Eggs
• Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin

Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)

• Major Climatic Change happened
• Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started
• Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya, Gujarat

Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)

• Agriculture Started
• Wheel discovered
• Inamgaon = An early village
• Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir), Mehrgarh(Pakistan), Chirand(Bihar), Daojali Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP), Hallur(AP), Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota.
• NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur

Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)

• Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin)
• Indus valley civilisation (BC 2700 – BC 1900).
• Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region)

Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200)

• Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 – BC 600) – Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, ie Vedas were composed, might have written down later.)
• Jainism and Buddhism
• Mahajanapadas – Major Civilization after Indus Valley- On banks of river Ganga
• Magadha empire – Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula
• Sisunga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin)
• Nanda empire – Mahapadma-nanda, Dhana-nanda
• Persian- Greek: Alexander 327 BC

Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC )

Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara, Asoka

Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (Middle Kingdoms):

• Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27BC), Satavahanas (235-100BC), Indo-Greeks, Parthians (19-45AD), Sakas (90BC-150AD), Kushanas(78AD)
• South Indian Kingdoms – Chola, Chera, Pandyas (BC 300)

Gupta Kingdom (300AD – 800AD): Classical Period)

 Samudra Gupta (Indian Napoleon) -  Important Ruler

Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas

• Harshvardana, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Chalukyas. Also, Hunas, Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas and Chauhans. 

2. Medieval India (AD 700 – AD 1857)

• AD: 800-1200: Tripartite struggle – Prathiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas
• Attack of Muhammed Bin Kassim (AD 712)
• Rise of Islam and Sufism
• Mohammed Ghazni (AD 1000-27)
• Mohammed Ghori (AD 1175-1206)

* Kingdoms of South India During Medieval India – Bhamini and Vijayanagara

Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD – 1526 AD)

The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi Sultanate period.

1. Slave Dynasty
2. Kilji Dynasty
3. Tuglaq Dynasty
4. Sayyid Dynasty
5. Lodi Dynasty

Mughals (AD 1526 – AD 1857)

• Great Mughals
• Later Mughals

Mughals from Babar (1526) to Aurangazeb (1707) were more powerful and hence known as Great Mughals. Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857 were known as Later Mughals.

• Arrival of Europeans
• Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs

 

3. Modern India (AD 1857 +)

 

• First War of Indian Independence (1857)
• Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)
• Formation of Muslim League (1906)
• Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
• Quit India Movement (1942)
• Partition of India (1947)
• Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950)
• Economic Development of India
• Wars – India-Pak – Formation of Bangladesh; India- China
• New Economic Policy of 1991
• Nuclear, Space and Defense Development